This paper attempts to reflect the understanding of the concept of Sustainable Livelihood Approach (SLA) in the changing development dynamics. Critical understanding of existing policies, principles, and models of different development agencies will be useful in understand the existing concepts. In addition, examining linkages between SL and right to food, food security, hunger, and food sovereignty could reveal missing elements of the existing concept of SLA. Nonetheless, the power relationship between power-holders and the powerless could be a potential area to look at loop holes for sustainability of livelihoods approach.
In addition, the paper will find some common goodness and applicability from the Rights Based Approach (RBA) and SLA. Alike, SLA, RBA is growingly introduced and practiced by development institutions and agencies. Skeptics may argue RBA is a “jargon” or a “buzz” word and its conceptual area could be fuzzy and blur, and could be replaced by some other fashionable jargons in the next couple of years. Therefore, keeping cynical arguments in mind the paper could find some areas of application of RBA to livelihood.
The objectives of this paper are i) to understand the existing frameworks on SLA, ii) to develop a conceptual guideline for RBA, ii) to build understanding on essentials and components of RBA, iii) to examine food security and sovereignty issues in the context of neoliberal policies, and iv) to consider new age challenges. The paper would find some missing elements of SLA that would need attention for an effective development intervention. On the other hand, critical analysis from rights perspective could truly address causes of deprivation and poverty.
(You can request for pdf file of the paper by email)
Saturday, March 22, 2008
Wednesday, March 19, 2008
NATURAL RESOURCES AND BIO-DIVERSITY OF BANGLADESH IS ON PERIL
Introduction
Within capitalist framework the corporate globalization has been widening gap between rich-poor, urban-rural, and men-women. Under the domination of market economy poor have lost their access to natural resources as well as food. People are also loosing their control over natural resources due to the market domination mechanism. The availability of agricultural inputs does not depend on production but on private and multinational companies.
It is needed to look for a society that is based on equity, justice, non-discrimination, and human rights. We live in a society that is based on unfair and unjust discriminatory mechanism led by rich and powerful. Resource has become curse for a poor country alike Bangladesh. Rich nations, their allay International Financial Institutions (IFIs), and transnational corporations have been exploiting natural resources and at the same time depriving marginal people. Land owners, land mafias, political mafias, and these foreign invaders have occupied major part of the resources. In fact, people are poor because they do not have access to resources because they do not own resources such as land, water bodies, khas land, and beels because local and international wealthy groups have occupied their resources through out the decades. Thus, poor were not born as poor. They are made poor by the wealthy groups because these capitalists’ agents have looted and robbed poor people’s resources. A civilized society believing the norms and standard of human values, equity, and human rights should not behave like this way. Then a question may arise, where the dreamed society that gives her citizens access to natural resources.
Majority rural poor of Bangladesh depend on Natural Resources (NR) for their livelihoods. Land, water, forests, and live stocks are the sources of livelihoods. The rural economy depends on productivity of the natural resources. Small trade and manufacturing process can not replace dependency over agricultural and natural resources. The country lacks institutional frame work in terms of Natural Resource Management (NRM), which has resulted a chaos and conflict over NRs and eventually poor and marginal people do not have access to. People have been loosing their entitlement to these resources. On the hand, degradation of land and other resources along with bio-diversity and eco-system are the prime concern for the entire population in Bangladesh.
WTO and IFIs through their policies have been shaping up the food production, distribution, role of farmers, and the natural resources in the country. These institutions are systematically destroying the agricultural productivity and food sovereignty of developing countries. Consequently, farmers’ livelihood is threatened as well as biodiversity and agricultural heritage. 840 million people suffer from hunger and malnutrition though the world has the capacity to feed her people. Thus, a question may arise, why natural resources are inaccessible by the poor? This is a social and political crisis. The basic problem lies within the control and management of natural resources. Awareness and awakening is needed from and within people to ensure access to natural resources,. “Political will” is also needed and except that conflict over resources may not be resolved.
The growing concern is access to NRs by poor people locally and globally. According to WWF, the land area of productive land and sea required providing the resources we use and to absorb our waste is around 14.1 billion global hectares or 2.2 global hectares per person while the total supply of productive area or bio-capacity is only 11.2 billion global hectares, or 1.8 global hectares per person. Wealthy group of people across the world are now pioneer with regard to exploiting NRs. Transnational corporations, WB, IMF, ADB, and their allies oil, gas, and coal mining companies have been practicing extreme exploitation of natural resources across the world. Thus, the wealthy groups are benefiting by violating rights of the oppressed. And marginal people are deprived of natural resources every where.
Multinational corporations are intervening agriculture of developing nations with hybrid seeds, chemical fertilizers and pesticides, which seriously causes damage to land fertility as well as eliminating traditional agricultural practices. Thus, corporate companies, WTO-IMF, and their rich allies have been wiping out traditional farmers on the corporate chase pool of modernity.
Local culture, economy, and political atmosphere are crushing within the conflicting circle of capitalist globalization. IFIs, donors, and transnational corporations are looting the resources of poor countries in many different ways in the disguise of globalization. People need to be united and should move against these agencies
Objective
The objectives of this research are:
(i) To have an overview on natural resources: valuable data and information regarding land, water, forest, fisheries, oil, gas, and coal could help to synthesize the overview.
(ii) To determine disastrous factors involved changing bio-diversity and destruction of ecology: Some case studies are mentioned here as evidences, which could help us to see the real picture of ecological disaster in the context of Bangladesh.
Methodology
The research has studied secondary data and information.
Literature review: This research carefully examines some existing reports and study on natural resources in Bangladesh. The literature review also includes policy papers, declaration, and conventions on natural resources, bio-diversity, and ecology.
Newspaper: Information, data, and case studies are studied and compiled. Both Bengali and English daily newspapers are studied for seeking information and data. The daily news papers selected for this purpose are The Somokal, The New Age, The Financial express, The Independent, and The Daily Star.
Internet sources: information and data on natural resources are collected, compiled, and analyzed for this research. Internet sources include research paper, reports, workshop outputs, and information published in the web sites.
Rationale
This research deliberately searches the link between corporate globalization and its negative impact over natural resources as well as ecology in Bangladesh. Very few researches are available to focus this missing link. Therefore, the research is unique in terms of locating the root causes of ecological destruction and its linkage to IFIs and multinational corporations over. The research also highlights the gap between policy and practice on natural resources in Bangladesh. Therefore, the research points finger to wealthy business groups and political mafias who deprive marginal people locally and internationally in many different disguise. Most of the study and research on NRs focus on superficial problems, poverty, gender, and scientific measure of resource degradation. This research gives special attention to find the root causes and to find the actors who are responsible for NRs crisis.
A. An overview of land, water, and natural resources of Bangladesh
Every one is entitled to natural resources
Human rights from human centric perspective enshrine every one’s access to natural resources. Corporate globalization leads to unjust and undemocratic socio-economic order where the poor and marginalized are loosing power and at the same time are lacking access to natural resources. People do not have decision making power over resources due to lack of enabling environment. As a result, poverty situation is worsening. Corporate powers manipulate globalization for their own profit. These powers own the maximum proportion of world’s resources. Scenario is same in the context of Bangladesh.
Natural resources are the common resources where every one should have equal access. Due to the unequal social structure rich people usually control the resources and poor are deprived off. Thus, poor is not poor by predetermined fate but they are poor because of lack of access to natural resources.
The policies in regard to the natural resources are framed through bureaucratic process and often follow the doctrines of colonial land policies that serve the benefit of the rich and powerful. As the poor have no access, the policies rule over the poor and their access by default are ignored.
Over exploitation of resources create climate hazard where people become the victims in the hand of corporate. Natural resources should not be used for profit only. Resource justice is an important aspect, which ensures rights and justice. Claiming rights over natural resources makes poor enabled to earn their livelihoods.
Unjust Land Resources
The total Geographical area of Bangladesh is about 56,000 square miles. (143,998 square kilometer) Out of which about 9 million hectares are cultivable land. A government survey finds that total cropped land is nearly 14.1 million hectares including single, double and triple cropping land. It is estimated that the growing population pressure will use up 50 per cent of the country’s cultivable land by 2025[i].
Every person working in the agriculture sector now owns only an average of 0.12 hectares of cropland. According to the classification of land, out of the total area, 63 per cent are being used for cultivation while 4.38 per cent for rural and urban housing and the rest includes forest & cultivable waste land[ii].
Khas land
Out of the total amount of identified Khas land of 3.3 million acres, only a tiny portion has so far been distributed to the poor who face multifaceted difficulties in both obtaining and retaining land. Most Khas land, identified or un-identified, are illegally occupied by the rich segments of the society who are integral part of the power structure[iii].
Out of this 3.3 million acres 0.8 million acres are agricultural land, 1.7 million acres are non-agricultural land and 0.8 million acres are water-bodies[iv].
Adivasi land
Indigenous peoples from eleven different ethno-linguistic groups have been living in the region for many centuries. Chittagong Hill Tract is mostly occupied by different tribal communities. Some other indigenous communities are living across the country.
Agriculture remains the main form of livelihood for CHT residents. Rice, with an agricultural yield of 0.90 Mt, is grown on 43.3% of the total cultivated land (0.19 M ha). A variety of fruits are grown with success, such as banana, pineapple, and jackfruit (Ullah 2002).
The CHT has an area of 13,180 km , making up approximately 10% of the total area of Bangladesh. Compared to the low-lying floodplains that characterize most of Bangladesh, the topography of the CHT is quite steep, with over 70% of the land at a slope greater than 40%. The soils are characterized by low fertility. Kyokra-Dong, the highest peak of Bangladesh (1,230 meter) is located in the southern tip of the Rangamati district, near the borders of India and Myanmar. The largest river in the CHT, the Karnaphuli River, was dammed in 1962 for development of hydroelectric power, flooding an area of about 68,000 ha, to become what is today Kaptai Lake. The Karnaphuli, Feni, Chengi, Maini, Kassalong, Sangu and Matamuhuri Rivers carve the six main valleys in the CHT[v].
Landlord and land mafias
More or less all state owned lands including 3.3 million acres of khas lands & new lands surfaced from the rivers & sea are occupied by the land grabbers, land mafias & terrorists under the patronage of former governments in power living in both rural & urban areas of Bangladesh.
Poor people’s access
According to government report[vi] 57% people of Bangladesh are landless poor & they live below poverty level. But Non-Government sources say that the number of landless people in Bangladesh is more than 68%. They live in perpetual poverty, hunger, disease and deprivation. The percentage of landless poor has been increasing for last couple of decades.
1947 : 14.3%
1970 : 19.8%
1975 : 32%
1984 : 46%
2001 : 68.8%
According to Dr. Mahboob Hossain & Prof. Abdul Byes, 45% of the landless & poor marginalized peasants in the rural areas own only 5% of the total cultivable land of Bangladesh and receives 10% needed credit from institutional sources.
Land occupy by the rich
22% of the rich & middle farmers of rural areas of Bangladesh own 71% of the total land & receive 31% institutional credit.
Land occupied in Dhaka
About 15% of the land in Dhaka is owned by 2% of the upper class elite of this metropolis, 28% middle class families own 65% of the residential areas and 70% poor families own only 20% of the residential areas. Most of the lands owned by the poor families are of poor quality in the outskirts & depressed areas.
Landless labor
As a result 69% of our people are landless, labourers, workers, slum dwellers and are forced to live in perpetual poverty, hunger, malnutrition & deprivation. The increasing population in the country is increasingly demanding natural resources for their survival. As Lewis Smith notes, each person needs 21.9 hectares of the Earth’s surface to supply their needs whereas, it was calculated, the Earth’s biological capacity is 15.7 hectares per person. Bangladesh is densely most populated country in the world. Therefore, this calculation could remind us how our country is dangerously exploiting natural resources.
Densely populated country faces serious problem of control and conflict over resources. Lands are occupied by commercial establishment, road network, urban development, forestry, fishing etc. rest of the land utilized for crop production and homesteads. Bangladesh is a country of about 143,999 sq. km including inland and estuarine water surfaces. Over 58% people are functionally landless in Bangladesh. About 17.8 million acres are cultivated land and average household farm (those who have farm land) size is 1.5 acre[vii].
Over utilization of land reduces fertility of land for meeting increasing demand of food. In addition, utilization of chemical fertilizer and pesticides hampers fertility besides polluting water and creating health hazards. Thus, eco-system is also hampered by the excessive utilization of land. The increasing demand for urbanization motivates unplanned infrastructural development at rural areas. River bank erosion and siltation are other cases for land degradation. Natural and man made both causes are involved in this process. A study found symptoms of land degradation such as Depletion of organic matter, Nutrient deficiency, Acidification, Salinization, Soil compaction, Plough pan formation, Overgrazing, Deforestation of hilly land, Shifting cultivation without adequate fallow periods, Water logging, and Accelerated erosion.
Unjust Water Resources
Water bodies: Inland water bodies: rivers and estuaries 1031563 ha., Beels 114161 ha., Kaptai Lake 68800 ha., Flood lands 2832792 ha., Ponds 230000 ha., Baors 5488 ha., Shrimp farms 141353 ha.[viii]
There are two aspects of surface and ground water: i) availability and ii) quality. The availability depends on monsoon climate, upstream flow, and consumption. Quality of surface water is deteriorated by chemicals, pesticides, and pollutants from factories. Water crisis occurs due to low rain fall, densely population, and agricultural, industrial, and urban needs. In one hand, there is scarcity of water during dry season. On the other hand, overflow of water is observed during monsoon. These two extreme situations create livelihood crisis and sufferings to the poor people. In addition, saline water from sea invades inland areas and degrades quality of surface and ground water as well as decrease fertility and increase salinity of soil.
The ground water level has been downing at Rajshahi and Bogura District for last 15 years. Many hand and machine driven tube wells are malfunctioning due to this problem. Experts say, if this continues, water shortage and even land slide could occur in the coming time (The Somokal, 04.05.07, p 12). We have used excessive ground water and have not found other alternatives of that, which caused today’s crisis. Scientists say that due to lack of rain fall and the drying up of river Padma are two important reasons for ground water crisis in the region. It also indicates the change in ecology and biodiversity due to manipulation of upstream flow of Padma by the Farakka dam. India had always been cruel in terms sharing Gangas water and the obvious impact is the dying Padma.
Severe water crisis was observed in Dhaka and nearby areas in the recent time, which is an alarm for city dwellers. Tube wells could not pump out water because the ground water level has gone down. A research says that, ground water layer under Dhaka city was lowered around 20 miters during 1996-2003. In 1996, the layer was at 26.6 meters and in 2003 the layer became 46.6 meter. It is assumed that the water layer is further lowered at 52 meters. This is not just happening under Dhaka city but also across the country. Thus, in one hand ground water layer is going down, on the other hand, due to global warming 67% ice of Himalaya is melting down. Under such as a circumstances monsoon could be the only source of water in the country but climate change could also uncertain the monsoon.
Government of Bangladesh has adopted National Water Policy in 1999 with a goal for proper utilization and conservation of water resources. This policy paper has declared water as “fundamental human rights”. The policy urges strong participation from citizens at all levels to ensure right to water. Article 2 (b) stresses on availability of water for poor and underprivileged community and gives special attention to women and children.
Unjust Fisheries
Fish is important source of protein for people in this country. The country has many rivers, canals, haors, baors, beels, and ponds, which are resources for culturing fish and eventually meeting protein needs. Sea is another huge source for fish and marine resources. Many medium and small scale fisheries have grown with regard to these NRs. Unfortunately, due to lack of institutional care fisheries in Bangladesh is at risk. According to a BCAS report, several decades ago there was an abundance of fish in this country but recently, capture fish production has declined to about 50 per cent, with a negative trend of 1.24 per cent per year.
Loss of aquatic habitats happened for installing various physical infrastructures such as dam. Many inland water bodies are dried up. A study found that Flood Control Drainage and Irrigation (FCDI) projects contributed to the decline of fish stocks and fisheries by creating obstacles in the fish migration routes. As a consequence, fish production has declined. In addition, farmers use chemical fertilizers and pesticides, which have devastated fish culture in a wider scale. According to IUCN 2000 report, out of 266 inland fish species 12 are critically endangered, 28 are endangered, 14 are vulnerable. Transnational corporations have been doing aggressive business of these chemicals across the country. Thus, the concepts of sustainable agriculture and its organic nature are wiped out by the corporate greed.
Unjust Forests
There is an estimated 2.52 million ha. of forest land which is about 17.08 percent of the total land area of the country. Out of this total forestland the government owns 2.25 million ha as classified and unclassified forests and 0.27 million ha is owned privately.
Today the world has less than 4 billion hectares of forest covering 30 percent of the earth’s land surface. Deforestation continues at an alarming high rate. About 13 million hectares of primary forests are lost or modified each year due to deforestation and other human activities.
The forest is not adequate according to the need of the country. Still many groups rely on this for livelihoods. Large reserved forests are the reserve forests such as Sundarbans, Chittagong region, and Madhupur tracts. And there are some protected forests across the country besides reserved forests. Inhabitants of reserved forests do not have rights over forests products but the inhabitants of protected forests have some rights. In the present context indigenous people and tribes who are the inhabitants of some forests do not have scope to live in harmony with the forest. Increasing commercial approach has been depleting natural forests and has introduced the process of deforestation. Thus, the people have been cutting down their future potential to meet the need and greed of the present.
Bangladesh is a cyclone prone country and the country has been encountering dangerous cyclone for many decades. Scientists say that the frequency of cyclone will be higher because of climate change. Sundarban acted as a shield to protect the devastating impact of Sidr in the resent time. Therefore, deforestation not only come up with livelihood crisis but also increase death toll at cyclones.
Injustice over Energy Resources in Bangladesh
The energy sources will be depleted by 2011. Experts’ opinions were divided with regard to energy resources. Conservation was needed as priority over exporting gas. Multinational companies have exploited the gas, oil, and coal resources of the country. WB, IMF, and their allies have patronized these multinational companies and local business elites to exploit energy in the country. These agents along with local greedy business and political elite have protected their own profit and interest.
Government had to commit in written to increase price of oil and gas for getting PRGF fund. The price of fuel has been increased 60% to 75% for last two years. The price of petrol and octane has been increased in local market from 27% to 29%. The price of kerosene and diesel has been increase 76% to 50%. IMF is further stressing to increase price. IMF says that Increase of price is good for economic stability and for GDP growth. Does that growth really improve mass people? General people are not really benefited from GDP growth. The price of fuel was going down in 2003 but IMF influenced to increase the price in Bangladesh. IMF said that government would loss Tk. 268 crore for importing and distributing fuel. We did not justify the truth of that statement. The reason for Bangladesh Petroleum Corporation’s (BPC) loss is excessive imposed tax over import. Government can reduce loss by reducing that tax.
Government committed to provide farmers with subsidies over diesel run pump machine after the price hike of diesel and kerosene. This commitment is violated. Farmers counted loss due to increased diesel price. Price hike of oil and gas eventually increase price of power and other products. This benefit transport owners but detriment general people. Thus government should consider people over IMF. IMF may stop proposed assistance of 100 million dollar. IMF accuses for lower price of oil and gas in the local market comparing with international market. As loan receiving country Bangladesh can not protest against IMF.
. Negative impact of lack of appropriate NRM:
Political will of government, people’s ownership, and participation are the ways to combat conflict over natural resources. Unless the government and people work together to solve this problem, an upsetting future is just waiting. If greed, corruption, and looting are driving force; local elites and foreign invaders will continue exploiting NRs. The damage and loss could be irreversible. According to a BCAS report some important constraints regarding access and entitlement to resources are:
· The economic systems based on high rates of resources consumption, environmentally damaging trade practices and lack of environmental accounting;
· Widespread poverty and unsustainable development efforts;
· Women’s inequity and the large unmet need for quality reproductive healthcare and family planning;
· Lack of educational, employment and income opportunity;
· Under-utilization of environmentally sound and locally appropriate technology; and
· Lack of people’s participation in resources management; and
· Inadequate understanding of people about the natural systems (Huq et al, 2000).
Some negative impacts of appropriate NRM could be understandable in the context of Bangladesh. The press had always been and still is conscious regarding the exploitation of natural resources in the country. Academics and researcher show noteworthy evidences in this connection too, which means people are aware about the fact. Two questions may arise i) why government and people’s force can not combat devastating issue such as Farakka Dam, Tipai Dam, Fulbaria coal mine, Shrimp culture, and so on caused by India, Asia Energy, and World Bank? ii) Why people and government can not combat local land lords, land mafias, and political mafias who are involved in destroying natural resources? Article 4.12 (d) of National Water Policy, 1999, notes to protect haors, baors, and beels water bodies from man made and other hazards. These water bodies have to be reactivated with proper care.
i) Cholon Beel
There are many water bodies, which could generate more income. For example, we could generate Tk. 400 crore from Cholon beel per year (The Somokal, 18.12.07, p 10). It is possible to produce 2 lac. M.T. fish through systematic and planned fish culture in this beel. The market price of this fish is Tk. 200 crore. Some group of people have occupied water bodies and Khas land illegally and they are united to resist Cholon beel development project. Experts say that if these lands could be distributed among land less farmers and water bodies among fishing community, it could improve income and lives of these marginal people. There is also prospect to develop this beel as Eco Park or eco beel. This is an example of a potential beel, which is left unplanned. Thus, access to natural resources means that marginal farmers and fishermen could access to the resources of the beel.
ii) Hybrid seeds a catastrophe for bio-diversity
According to The New Age (25.05.07, p3), massive expansion of hybrid seeds replacing local rice varieties has caused the widespread sterility problem. A recent study has found that local varieties such as Lahaiya, Jagli, and Rata do not have sterility problem. Use of HYVs has threatened traditional crop pattern and ecological diversity. Especially wealthier strata of the society are very much involved in HYVs and have introduced this catastrophic sterility problem. HYV and hybrid varieties account for country’s 60% of arable land for rice cultivation. These varieties have been gradually eliminating country’s 15,000 traditional varieties. This is a gradual elimination of bio diversity.
iii) Saline water devastating ecology
Man made disaster
According to The Somokal (20.09.07, p3), some illegal shrimp culture is happing in Koyra Upazila. A group of people collecting saline water piping and penetrating dam at coastal areas. There are 800 man made leakages in the dam. Around 4000 illegal shrimp culture is found in this area. Some leakages caused erosion of dam and eventually it has flooded some areas. Local elites and corrupt official of government administration are profiting from these illegal activities. Plants are dying; there is no future prospect for cropping, Livestock and poultries are declining, people have been suffering from stomach disease and skin rash. The aggression of shrimp culture by the powerful elites is almost irresistible by local government administration. Unless the government is concerned and resists these activities, there is no way out to stop the devastation of ecology at the coastal belt of Bangladesh.
WB and IMF has encouraged and funded shrimp culture in the coastal region. In 1972 the Chokoria Sundarban occupied 19390 acre land, which is reduced to 4072 in 1985 (Stolen Forest). The declining Sundarban and increasing shrimp field could be compared from satellite picture. Similarly, rubber cultivation and pulp wood have destroyed Segun trees in the Hill tract.
The aggression of tobacco cultivation has created sterility of the land in the Northern part of the country beside cutting trees for creating cultivable land for tobacco. An Ubenig study found that land in Kustia district has lost fertility. Tobacco companies are now looking to cultivate land near the river Mata Muhuri and some land in Hill tracts. These companies cut trees and use woods to burn tobacco. It is estimated that 960 to 1000 trees are burnt for 1200 kg tobacco at each season.
Natural Disaster
Flood causes damages to water resources in Bangladesh along with loss of crops, livestock, infrastructure, and livelihood. After the independence the major flood occurred in 1974, 1987, 1988, 1998, 2007. This recurrent natural disaster usually paralyzes the country, which is a challenge for the people and government as well.
Natural disaster is a curse for natural resources of a poor country alike Bangladesh. Sources of pure drinking water for 22 lac. people in 4 coastal districts have been destroyed. Pond waters are polluted by saline water and dead bodies of human and lives stocks. Hundreds of tube wells are broken as well as defected due to cyclone.
iv) Dams on the upstream of rivers are drying up Bangladesh
Tipaye dam
Tipaye Dam is going to be the death trap for North-eastern zone of Bangladesh. India is going to install dam on its river Borak. Rivers of north-eastern zone will be dried up sooner. Draught during summer and flood during monsoon will be disastrous phenomenon. Irrigation, fisheries, and river communication will be severely damaged. This Tipaye dam will have negative impact over bio-diversity and ecology of the haor areas of north east part of the country. The seven districts of this haor area use to produce 25 lac. M.T. rice each year. In addition, more than 2 lac. M.T. fish is naturally produced and collected from haors, baors, and beels of this area. Thus, many rivers and their branches are drying up. Ecology of this area is already at risk. Tipaye dam will confirm the death of these rivers. There will be scarcity of both surface and ground water. A riverine land will simply transform into a desert.
Kaptai dam
In 1964, US funded for Kaptai hydroelectric plant. This project had flooded 250 km land. Near about 1 lac. indigenous people had lost their homes and lands. This plant is a major source of power supply in the country but some areas of indigenous communities have not received electric. If power supply is an indicator of so-called development, the indigenous community is not developed from that view point.
v) Hakaluki Haor
There is a world’s biggest haor in Bangladesh name Hakaluki. It is unfortunate and a good example too that as a nation we can not take care our resources. A group of greedy people has been systematically destroying the haor for fishing. Bio-diversity in this area is in danger. According to The Somokal (20.04.07), local administration had seized some water pump machines and fishing nets in the haor area. There are government khas land around the haor. Due to lack of care part of the haor areas transformed into khas land. Fish species are wiping out from the haor due to these overwhelming fishing activities. According to sources, 30- 40 beels exist out of 300 beels of Hakaluki haor. The rest of beels are filled and transformed into dry desert.
vi) Coal mines are the mines of exploitation and disaster for ecology
Boro Pukuria Coal mine
According to news sources, land slide happened at 4 hectares land and cracks are found in 27 houses. Residents close to the cola mine are panicked. local people in the area are anxious about bigger disaster in the future. A total 1 thousand 50 hectares land is allocated for this mining project. The poisonous gas out of the mine already has threatened lives of people as well as ecology in the area.
Fulbaria Coal mine
The Asian Energy is making hundreds crores of money at share market in London showing the coal mine in Bangladesh. After the local people’s movement and protest against Asia Energy, government had signed an agreement with people on August 30, 2006. The condition was to expel Asia Energy from Bangladesh and also to receive compensation from them. Unfortunately none of the conditions are fulfilled.
vii) Bio-diversity is in danger due to commercialization
Bangladesh still has a sound environment for different species such as fish, bird, insects, and so on. Commercial exploitation is wiping out some species. Commercial traders are not concern about the conservation and production of the species at all. Some traders have been exporting frog legs and some traders exploiting reptiles for bones and skin. These traders are making profit from the increasing demand of these items. This over exploitation also led imbalances in bio-diversity. These species and insects play important role in agriculture and fisheries. Thus, loss of bio-diversity is a threat for productivity in agriculture and fisheries. Sundarban mangrove forest is very resourceful for habitants including various animals, birds, and plants. The absence of strong institutional policies and actions are unfortunate with regard to the necessity for conservation.
According to a report of The Somokal, 2.5 lac people of Koyra Upazila are suffering from salinity. Plants are dying, paddy is not growing, homestead is being destroyed, and livestock are dying. Deep tub wells are not able to pump out pure drinking water from the ground. Growing Shrimp culture is partly responsible for this wider scale damage of livelihoods, bio-diversity, and ecology in the coastal areas. And local business and political elites are responsible for these shrimp cultures. Article 4.9 (f) mentions that aquaculture at saline water should be restricted by government within a given territory. Thus, the government and people together can stop WB, local elites, and business mafias with regard to this article.
According to India Today, 1997, India has been withdrawing between 60,000 to 80,000 cusecs of water from the Ganges leaving a relatively low flow for Bangladesh. The consequences of this have been severe for Bangladesh, where the salinity front has moved some 280 km upstream from the coast and salinity levels in the surface water have increased from 500 µmho to 29000 µmho at Khulna in April, exceeding the safe limit by several times. The groundwater salinity has also increased from 200 µmho to about 3000 µmho in the region during the Farakka period and there is some evidence that the Sunderbans, one of the world’s largest mangrove forest, is suffering due to increased salinity in the estuarine rivers flowing through it. (Chadwick, Policy Review Paper)
viiI) Aggression of multi national companies for agricultural productivity
The country needs more agricultural productivity to feed its increased population. There is little scope to extend arable areas for cultivation. Thus, the challenge is to have increased production from limited land. Multiple cropping and irrigation technique could be adapted in this connection. Still it this leads to over exploitation of soil. Organization and institutional support mechanism is not state of the art to keep maintaining traditional sustainable agricultural method. Multinational corporations are very much active to sell their products such as chemical fertilizers and GMOs with a false promise for higher production. Farmers are perplexed about how to produce more crops within limited land. They believe prescribed commercial approaches for higher agricultural produces.
Multinational companies are selling chemical fertilizers and pesticides in the rural market of Bangladesh. These chemicals pollute both ground and surface water. Farmers do not practice traditional organic techniques for cropping. Multinational corporations have washed brains of farmers to promote their product and to make profit. Excessive usage of chemical has also degraded bio-diversity and ecological balance. The articles 4.7 (e) of the National Water Policy, 1999, has urged to control chemical usage as well as control the pollution out of the chemical usage. Having a policy paper is worthless unless change happens on the ground through enacting laws to practice it.
C.Treaties and policies
Bangladesh has signed, ratified, accepted and acceded to CITES, World Heritage Convention, Ramsar Convention, CBD, Climate Change Convention and Convention to Combat Desertification. Thus it adheres and commit to the conservation of biodiversity and the environment.
Bangladesh signed the Biodiversity Convention at Rio on 5 June 1992 and ratified on 3 May 1994. Now, various departments are responsible for conservation of bio-diversity. The government has a plan to prepare separate policy for bio-diversity. However, in the mean time, Bangladesh has prepared National Conservation Strategy (NCS) and the National Environment Management Action Plan (NEMAP).
REcommendations
1) Land should be reformed on the basis of proper distributive justice. Khas lands need to be distributed among landless poor. Access to land should enshrined by policies.
2) Access to water bodies such as beel, haors, and baors should be guaranteed by the rural poor. Right to safe drinking water has to be ensured for the citizens. Utilization of rain water could be developed to stop overwhelming demand on ground water.
3) Conservation of forest is an immediate need by stopping deforestation. Government has to activate the existing laws or to enact special laws for forest conservation. Plantation of hazardous tress for forestation is a fool’s effort. Programs have to be undertaken to plant eco-friendly tress forestation.
4) Government should necessary steps with regard to National Fisheries Policy (1998) importance of conserving fish breeding grounds and habitats, especially in relation to water management infrastructure such as flood control, irrigation and drainage projects.
5) Government should strictly prohibit overwhelming shrimp culture and to reduce WB influence over shrimp production.
6) Government along with people’s participation should revisit policies regarding energy resources such as oil, gas, and coal and stop intervention of foreign companies in this regard. Government should also collect compensation money from foreign companies and compensate habitants of the project areas.
7) Government should take immediate steps for the conservation of ecology and bio-diversity. Environmental Conservation Act of February 1995 along with other policies that are concern about ecology. Government should identify the local and foreign actors who violate rights and livelihood of the marginal people. In addition, government needs to ensure enabling atmosphere for marginal people to access natural resources
End Notes
[i] for detail see the report, “Needs for land and agrarian reform”, prepared by ARBAN
[ii] ibid.
[iii] Rahman M., 2001
[iv] ARBAN
[v] for detail see CHARM project report 1, 2006.
[vi] ARBAN
[vii] BCAS 2002
[viii] BBS 2000
Within capitalist framework the corporate globalization has been widening gap between rich-poor, urban-rural, and men-women. Under the domination of market economy poor have lost their access to natural resources as well as food. People are also loosing their control over natural resources due to the market domination mechanism. The availability of agricultural inputs does not depend on production but on private and multinational companies.
It is needed to look for a society that is based on equity, justice, non-discrimination, and human rights. We live in a society that is based on unfair and unjust discriminatory mechanism led by rich and powerful. Resource has become curse for a poor country alike Bangladesh. Rich nations, their allay International Financial Institutions (IFIs), and transnational corporations have been exploiting natural resources and at the same time depriving marginal people. Land owners, land mafias, political mafias, and these foreign invaders have occupied major part of the resources. In fact, people are poor because they do not have access to resources because they do not own resources such as land, water bodies, khas land, and beels because local and international wealthy groups have occupied their resources through out the decades. Thus, poor were not born as poor. They are made poor by the wealthy groups because these capitalists’ agents have looted and robbed poor people’s resources. A civilized society believing the norms and standard of human values, equity, and human rights should not behave like this way. Then a question may arise, where the dreamed society that gives her citizens access to natural resources.
Majority rural poor of Bangladesh depend on Natural Resources (NR) for their livelihoods. Land, water, forests, and live stocks are the sources of livelihoods. The rural economy depends on productivity of the natural resources. Small trade and manufacturing process can not replace dependency over agricultural and natural resources. The country lacks institutional frame work in terms of Natural Resource Management (NRM), which has resulted a chaos and conflict over NRs and eventually poor and marginal people do not have access to. People have been loosing their entitlement to these resources. On the hand, degradation of land and other resources along with bio-diversity and eco-system are the prime concern for the entire population in Bangladesh.
WTO and IFIs through their policies have been shaping up the food production, distribution, role of farmers, and the natural resources in the country. These institutions are systematically destroying the agricultural productivity and food sovereignty of developing countries. Consequently, farmers’ livelihood is threatened as well as biodiversity and agricultural heritage. 840 million people suffer from hunger and malnutrition though the world has the capacity to feed her people. Thus, a question may arise, why natural resources are inaccessible by the poor? This is a social and political crisis. The basic problem lies within the control and management of natural resources. Awareness and awakening is needed from and within people to ensure access to natural resources,. “Political will” is also needed and except that conflict over resources may not be resolved.
The growing concern is access to NRs by poor people locally and globally. According to WWF, the land area of productive land and sea required providing the resources we use and to absorb our waste is around 14.1 billion global hectares or 2.2 global hectares per person while the total supply of productive area or bio-capacity is only 11.2 billion global hectares, or 1.8 global hectares per person. Wealthy group of people across the world are now pioneer with regard to exploiting NRs. Transnational corporations, WB, IMF, ADB, and their allies oil, gas, and coal mining companies have been practicing extreme exploitation of natural resources across the world. Thus, the wealthy groups are benefiting by violating rights of the oppressed. And marginal people are deprived of natural resources every where.
Multinational corporations are intervening agriculture of developing nations with hybrid seeds, chemical fertilizers and pesticides, which seriously causes damage to land fertility as well as eliminating traditional agricultural practices. Thus, corporate companies, WTO-IMF, and their rich allies have been wiping out traditional farmers on the corporate chase pool of modernity.
Local culture, economy, and political atmosphere are crushing within the conflicting circle of capitalist globalization. IFIs, donors, and transnational corporations are looting the resources of poor countries in many different ways in the disguise of globalization. People need to be united and should move against these agencies
Objective
The objectives of this research are:
(i) To have an overview on natural resources: valuable data and information regarding land, water, forest, fisheries, oil, gas, and coal could help to synthesize the overview.
(ii) To determine disastrous factors involved changing bio-diversity and destruction of ecology: Some case studies are mentioned here as evidences, which could help us to see the real picture of ecological disaster in the context of Bangladesh.
Methodology
The research has studied secondary data and information.
Literature review: This research carefully examines some existing reports and study on natural resources in Bangladesh. The literature review also includes policy papers, declaration, and conventions on natural resources, bio-diversity, and ecology.
Newspaper: Information, data, and case studies are studied and compiled. Both Bengali and English daily newspapers are studied for seeking information and data. The daily news papers selected for this purpose are The Somokal, The New Age, The Financial express, The Independent, and The Daily Star.
Internet sources: information and data on natural resources are collected, compiled, and analyzed for this research. Internet sources include research paper, reports, workshop outputs, and information published in the web sites.
Rationale
This research deliberately searches the link between corporate globalization and its negative impact over natural resources as well as ecology in Bangladesh. Very few researches are available to focus this missing link. Therefore, the research is unique in terms of locating the root causes of ecological destruction and its linkage to IFIs and multinational corporations over. The research also highlights the gap between policy and practice on natural resources in Bangladesh. Therefore, the research points finger to wealthy business groups and political mafias who deprive marginal people locally and internationally in many different disguise. Most of the study and research on NRs focus on superficial problems, poverty, gender, and scientific measure of resource degradation. This research gives special attention to find the root causes and to find the actors who are responsible for NRs crisis.
A. An overview of land, water, and natural resources of Bangladesh
Every one is entitled to natural resources
Human rights from human centric perspective enshrine every one’s access to natural resources. Corporate globalization leads to unjust and undemocratic socio-economic order where the poor and marginalized are loosing power and at the same time are lacking access to natural resources. People do not have decision making power over resources due to lack of enabling environment. As a result, poverty situation is worsening. Corporate powers manipulate globalization for their own profit. These powers own the maximum proportion of world’s resources. Scenario is same in the context of Bangladesh.
Natural resources are the common resources where every one should have equal access. Due to the unequal social structure rich people usually control the resources and poor are deprived off. Thus, poor is not poor by predetermined fate but they are poor because of lack of access to natural resources.
The policies in regard to the natural resources are framed through bureaucratic process and often follow the doctrines of colonial land policies that serve the benefit of the rich and powerful. As the poor have no access, the policies rule over the poor and their access by default are ignored.
Over exploitation of resources create climate hazard where people become the victims in the hand of corporate. Natural resources should not be used for profit only. Resource justice is an important aspect, which ensures rights and justice. Claiming rights over natural resources makes poor enabled to earn their livelihoods.
Unjust Land Resources
The total Geographical area of Bangladesh is about 56,000 square miles. (143,998 square kilometer) Out of which about 9 million hectares are cultivable land. A government survey finds that total cropped land is nearly 14.1 million hectares including single, double and triple cropping land. It is estimated that the growing population pressure will use up 50 per cent of the country’s cultivable land by 2025[i].
Every person working in the agriculture sector now owns only an average of 0.12 hectares of cropland. According to the classification of land, out of the total area, 63 per cent are being used for cultivation while 4.38 per cent for rural and urban housing and the rest includes forest & cultivable waste land[ii].
Khas land
Out of the total amount of identified Khas land of 3.3 million acres, only a tiny portion has so far been distributed to the poor who face multifaceted difficulties in both obtaining and retaining land. Most Khas land, identified or un-identified, are illegally occupied by the rich segments of the society who are integral part of the power structure[iii].
Out of this 3.3 million acres 0.8 million acres are agricultural land, 1.7 million acres are non-agricultural land and 0.8 million acres are water-bodies[iv].
Adivasi land
Indigenous peoples from eleven different ethno-linguistic groups have been living in the region for many centuries. Chittagong Hill Tract is mostly occupied by different tribal communities. Some other indigenous communities are living across the country.
Agriculture remains the main form of livelihood for CHT residents. Rice, with an agricultural yield of 0.90 Mt, is grown on 43.3% of the total cultivated land (0.19 M ha). A variety of fruits are grown with success, such as banana, pineapple, and jackfruit (Ullah 2002).
The CHT has an area of 13,180 km , making up approximately 10% of the total area of Bangladesh. Compared to the low-lying floodplains that characterize most of Bangladesh, the topography of the CHT is quite steep, with over 70% of the land at a slope greater than 40%. The soils are characterized by low fertility. Kyokra-Dong, the highest peak of Bangladesh (1,230 meter) is located in the southern tip of the Rangamati district, near the borders of India and Myanmar. The largest river in the CHT, the Karnaphuli River, was dammed in 1962 for development of hydroelectric power, flooding an area of about 68,000 ha, to become what is today Kaptai Lake. The Karnaphuli, Feni, Chengi, Maini, Kassalong, Sangu and Matamuhuri Rivers carve the six main valleys in the CHT[v].
Landlord and land mafias
More or less all state owned lands including 3.3 million acres of khas lands & new lands surfaced from the rivers & sea are occupied by the land grabbers, land mafias & terrorists under the patronage of former governments in power living in both rural & urban areas of Bangladesh.
Poor people’s access
According to government report[vi] 57% people of Bangladesh are landless poor & they live below poverty level. But Non-Government sources say that the number of landless people in Bangladesh is more than 68%. They live in perpetual poverty, hunger, disease and deprivation. The percentage of landless poor has been increasing for last couple of decades.
1947 : 14.3%
1970 : 19.8%
1975 : 32%
1984 : 46%
2001 : 68.8%
According to Dr. Mahboob Hossain & Prof. Abdul Byes, 45% of the landless & poor marginalized peasants in the rural areas own only 5% of the total cultivable land of Bangladesh and receives 10% needed credit from institutional sources.
Land occupy by the rich
22% of the rich & middle farmers of rural areas of Bangladesh own 71% of the total land & receive 31% institutional credit.
Land occupied in Dhaka
About 15% of the land in Dhaka is owned by 2% of the upper class elite of this metropolis, 28% middle class families own 65% of the residential areas and 70% poor families own only 20% of the residential areas. Most of the lands owned by the poor families are of poor quality in the outskirts & depressed areas.
Landless labor
As a result 69% of our people are landless, labourers, workers, slum dwellers and are forced to live in perpetual poverty, hunger, malnutrition & deprivation. The increasing population in the country is increasingly demanding natural resources for their survival. As Lewis Smith notes, each person needs 21.9 hectares of the Earth’s surface to supply their needs whereas, it was calculated, the Earth’s biological capacity is 15.7 hectares per person. Bangladesh is densely most populated country in the world. Therefore, this calculation could remind us how our country is dangerously exploiting natural resources.
Densely populated country faces serious problem of control and conflict over resources. Lands are occupied by commercial establishment, road network, urban development, forestry, fishing etc. rest of the land utilized for crop production and homesteads. Bangladesh is a country of about 143,999 sq. km including inland and estuarine water surfaces. Over 58% people are functionally landless in Bangladesh. About 17.8 million acres are cultivated land and average household farm (those who have farm land) size is 1.5 acre[vii].
Over utilization of land reduces fertility of land for meeting increasing demand of food. In addition, utilization of chemical fertilizer and pesticides hampers fertility besides polluting water and creating health hazards. Thus, eco-system is also hampered by the excessive utilization of land. The increasing demand for urbanization motivates unplanned infrastructural development at rural areas. River bank erosion and siltation are other cases for land degradation. Natural and man made both causes are involved in this process. A study found symptoms of land degradation such as Depletion of organic matter, Nutrient deficiency, Acidification, Salinization, Soil compaction, Plough pan formation, Overgrazing, Deforestation of hilly land, Shifting cultivation without adequate fallow periods, Water logging, and Accelerated erosion.
Unjust Water Resources
Water bodies: Inland water bodies: rivers and estuaries 1031563 ha., Beels 114161 ha., Kaptai Lake 68800 ha., Flood lands 2832792 ha., Ponds 230000 ha., Baors 5488 ha., Shrimp farms 141353 ha.[viii]
There are two aspects of surface and ground water: i) availability and ii) quality. The availability depends on monsoon climate, upstream flow, and consumption. Quality of surface water is deteriorated by chemicals, pesticides, and pollutants from factories. Water crisis occurs due to low rain fall, densely population, and agricultural, industrial, and urban needs. In one hand, there is scarcity of water during dry season. On the other hand, overflow of water is observed during monsoon. These two extreme situations create livelihood crisis and sufferings to the poor people. In addition, saline water from sea invades inland areas and degrades quality of surface and ground water as well as decrease fertility and increase salinity of soil.
The ground water level has been downing at Rajshahi and Bogura District for last 15 years. Many hand and machine driven tube wells are malfunctioning due to this problem. Experts say, if this continues, water shortage and even land slide could occur in the coming time (The Somokal, 04.05.07, p 12). We have used excessive ground water and have not found other alternatives of that, which caused today’s crisis. Scientists say that due to lack of rain fall and the drying up of river Padma are two important reasons for ground water crisis in the region. It also indicates the change in ecology and biodiversity due to manipulation of upstream flow of Padma by the Farakka dam. India had always been cruel in terms sharing Gangas water and the obvious impact is the dying Padma.
Severe water crisis was observed in Dhaka and nearby areas in the recent time, which is an alarm for city dwellers. Tube wells could not pump out water because the ground water level has gone down. A research says that, ground water layer under Dhaka city was lowered around 20 miters during 1996-2003. In 1996, the layer was at 26.6 meters and in 2003 the layer became 46.6 meter. It is assumed that the water layer is further lowered at 52 meters. This is not just happening under Dhaka city but also across the country. Thus, in one hand ground water layer is going down, on the other hand, due to global warming 67% ice of Himalaya is melting down. Under such as a circumstances monsoon could be the only source of water in the country but climate change could also uncertain the monsoon.
Government of Bangladesh has adopted National Water Policy in 1999 with a goal for proper utilization and conservation of water resources. This policy paper has declared water as “fundamental human rights”. The policy urges strong participation from citizens at all levels to ensure right to water. Article 2 (b) stresses on availability of water for poor and underprivileged community and gives special attention to women and children.
Unjust Fisheries
Fish is important source of protein for people in this country. The country has many rivers, canals, haors, baors, beels, and ponds, which are resources for culturing fish and eventually meeting protein needs. Sea is another huge source for fish and marine resources. Many medium and small scale fisheries have grown with regard to these NRs. Unfortunately, due to lack of institutional care fisheries in Bangladesh is at risk. According to a BCAS report, several decades ago there was an abundance of fish in this country but recently, capture fish production has declined to about 50 per cent, with a negative trend of 1.24 per cent per year.
Loss of aquatic habitats happened for installing various physical infrastructures such as dam. Many inland water bodies are dried up. A study found that Flood Control Drainage and Irrigation (FCDI) projects contributed to the decline of fish stocks and fisheries by creating obstacles in the fish migration routes. As a consequence, fish production has declined. In addition, farmers use chemical fertilizers and pesticides, which have devastated fish culture in a wider scale. According to IUCN 2000 report, out of 266 inland fish species 12 are critically endangered, 28 are endangered, 14 are vulnerable. Transnational corporations have been doing aggressive business of these chemicals across the country. Thus, the concepts of sustainable agriculture and its organic nature are wiped out by the corporate greed.
Unjust Forests
There is an estimated 2.52 million ha. of forest land which is about 17.08 percent of the total land area of the country. Out of this total forestland the government owns 2.25 million ha as classified and unclassified forests and 0.27 million ha is owned privately.
Today the world has less than 4 billion hectares of forest covering 30 percent of the earth’s land surface. Deforestation continues at an alarming high rate. About 13 million hectares of primary forests are lost or modified each year due to deforestation and other human activities.
The forest is not adequate according to the need of the country. Still many groups rely on this for livelihoods. Large reserved forests are the reserve forests such as Sundarbans, Chittagong region, and Madhupur tracts. And there are some protected forests across the country besides reserved forests. Inhabitants of reserved forests do not have rights over forests products but the inhabitants of protected forests have some rights. In the present context indigenous people and tribes who are the inhabitants of some forests do not have scope to live in harmony with the forest. Increasing commercial approach has been depleting natural forests and has introduced the process of deforestation. Thus, the people have been cutting down their future potential to meet the need and greed of the present.
Bangladesh is a cyclone prone country and the country has been encountering dangerous cyclone for many decades. Scientists say that the frequency of cyclone will be higher because of climate change. Sundarban acted as a shield to protect the devastating impact of Sidr in the resent time. Therefore, deforestation not only come up with livelihood crisis but also increase death toll at cyclones.
Injustice over Energy Resources in Bangladesh
The energy sources will be depleted by 2011. Experts’ opinions were divided with regard to energy resources. Conservation was needed as priority over exporting gas. Multinational companies have exploited the gas, oil, and coal resources of the country. WB, IMF, and their allies have patronized these multinational companies and local business elites to exploit energy in the country. These agents along with local greedy business and political elite have protected their own profit and interest.
Government had to commit in written to increase price of oil and gas for getting PRGF fund. The price of fuel has been increased 60% to 75% for last two years. The price of petrol and octane has been increased in local market from 27% to 29%. The price of kerosene and diesel has been increase 76% to 50%. IMF is further stressing to increase price. IMF says that Increase of price is good for economic stability and for GDP growth. Does that growth really improve mass people? General people are not really benefited from GDP growth. The price of fuel was going down in 2003 but IMF influenced to increase the price in Bangladesh. IMF said that government would loss Tk. 268 crore for importing and distributing fuel. We did not justify the truth of that statement. The reason for Bangladesh Petroleum Corporation’s (BPC) loss is excessive imposed tax over import. Government can reduce loss by reducing that tax.
Government committed to provide farmers with subsidies over diesel run pump machine after the price hike of diesel and kerosene. This commitment is violated. Farmers counted loss due to increased diesel price. Price hike of oil and gas eventually increase price of power and other products. This benefit transport owners but detriment general people. Thus government should consider people over IMF. IMF may stop proposed assistance of 100 million dollar. IMF accuses for lower price of oil and gas in the local market comparing with international market. As loan receiving country Bangladesh can not protest against IMF.
. Negative impact of lack of appropriate NRM:
Political will of government, people’s ownership, and participation are the ways to combat conflict over natural resources. Unless the government and people work together to solve this problem, an upsetting future is just waiting. If greed, corruption, and looting are driving force; local elites and foreign invaders will continue exploiting NRs. The damage and loss could be irreversible. According to a BCAS report some important constraints regarding access and entitlement to resources are:
· The economic systems based on high rates of resources consumption, environmentally damaging trade practices and lack of environmental accounting;
· Widespread poverty and unsustainable development efforts;
· Women’s inequity and the large unmet need for quality reproductive healthcare and family planning;
· Lack of educational, employment and income opportunity;
· Under-utilization of environmentally sound and locally appropriate technology; and
· Lack of people’s participation in resources management; and
· Inadequate understanding of people about the natural systems (Huq et al, 2000).
Some negative impacts of appropriate NRM could be understandable in the context of Bangladesh. The press had always been and still is conscious regarding the exploitation of natural resources in the country. Academics and researcher show noteworthy evidences in this connection too, which means people are aware about the fact. Two questions may arise i) why government and people’s force can not combat devastating issue such as Farakka Dam, Tipai Dam, Fulbaria coal mine, Shrimp culture, and so on caused by India, Asia Energy, and World Bank? ii) Why people and government can not combat local land lords, land mafias, and political mafias who are involved in destroying natural resources? Article 4.12 (d) of National Water Policy, 1999, notes to protect haors, baors, and beels water bodies from man made and other hazards. These water bodies have to be reactivated with proper care.
i) Cholon Beel
There are many water bodies, which could generate more income. For example, we could generate Tk. 400 crore from Cholon beel per year (The Somokal, 18.12.07, p 10). It is possible to produce 2 lac. M.T. fish through systematic and planned fish culture in this beel. The market price of this fish is Tk. 200 crore. Some group of people have occupied water bodies and Khas land illegally and they are united to resist Cholon beel development project. Experts say that if these lands could be distributed among land less farmers and water bodies among fishing community, it could improve income and lives of these marginal people. There is also prospect to develop this beel as Eco Park or eco beel. This is an example of a potential beel, which is left unplanned. Thus, access to natural resources means that marginal farmers and fishermen could access to the resources of the beel.
ii) Hybrid seeds a catastrophe for bio-diversity
According to The New Age (25.05.07, p3), massive expansion of hybrid seeds replacing local rice varieties has caused the widespread sterility problem. A recent study has found that local varieties such as Lahaiya, Jagli, and Rata do not have sterility problem. Use of HYVs has threatened traditional crop pattern and ecological diversity. Especially wealthier strata of the society are very much involved in HYVs and have introduced this catastrophic sterility problem. HYV and hybrid varieties account for country’s 60% of arable land for rice cultivation. These varieties have been gradually eliminating country’s 15,000 traditional varieties. This is a gradual elimination of bio diversity.
iii) Saline water devastating ecology
Man made disaster
According to The Somokal (20.09.07, p3), some illegal shrimp culture is happing in Koyra Upazila. A group of people collecting saline water piping and penetrating dam at coastal areas. There are 800 man made leakages in the dam. Around 4000 illegal shrimp culture is found in this area. Some leakages caused erosion of dam and eventually it has flooded some areas. Local elites and corrupt official of government administration are profiting from these illegal activities. Plants are dying; there is no future prospect for cropping, Livestock and poultries are declining, people have been suffering from stomach disease and skin rash. The aggression of shrimp culture by the powerful elites is almost irresistible by local government administration. Unless the government is concerned and resists these activities, there is no way out to stop the devastation of ecology at the coastal belt of Bangladesh.
WB and IMF has encouraged and funded shrimp culture in the coastal region. In 1972 the Chokoria Sundarban occupied 19390 acre land, which is reduced to 4072 in 1985 (Stolen Forest). The declining Sundarban and increasing shrimp field could be compared from satellite picture. Similarly, rubber cultivation and pulp wood have destroyed Segun trees in the Hill tract.
The aggression of tobacco cultivation has created sterility of the land in the Northern part of the country beside cutting trees for creating cultivable land for tobacco. An Ubenig study found that land in Kustia district has lost fertility. Tobacco companies are now looking to cultivate land near the river Mata Muhuri and some land in Hill tracts. These companies cut trees and use woods to burn tobacco. It is estimated that 960 to 1000 trees are burnt for 1200 kg tobacco at each season.
Natural Disaster
Flood causes damages to water resources in Bangladesh along with loss of crops, livestock, infrastructure, and livelihood. After the independence the major flood occurred in 1974, 1987, 1988, 1998, 2007. This recurrent natural disaster usually paralyzes the country, which is a challenge for the people and government as well.
Natural disaster is a curse for natural resources of a poor country alike Bangladesh. Sources of pure drinking water for 22 lac. people in 4 coastal districts have been destroyed. Pond waters are polluted by saline water and dead bodies of human and lives stocks. Hundreds of tube wells are broken as well as defected due to cyclone.
iv) Dams on the upstream of rivers are drying up Bangladesh
Tipaye dam
Tipaye Dam is going to be the death trap for North-eastern zone of Bangladesh. India is going to install dam on its river Borak. Rivers of north-eastern zone will be dried up sooner. Draught during summer and flood during monsoon will be disastrous phenomenon. Irrigation, fisheries, and river communication will be severely damaged. This Tipaye dam will have negative impact over bio-diversity and ecology of the haor areas of north east part of the country. The seven districts of this haor area use to produce 25 lac. M.T. rice each year. In addition, more than 2 lac. M.T. fish is naturally produced and collected from haors, baors, and beels of this area. Thus, many rivers and their branches are drying up. Ecology of this area is already at risk. Tipaye dam will confirm the death of these rivers. There will be scarcity of both surface and ground water. A riverine land will simply transform into a desert.
Kaptai dam
In 1964, US funded for Kaptai hydroelectric plant. This project had flooded 250 km land. Near about 1 lac. indigenous people had lost their homes and lands. This plant is a major source of power supply in the country but some areas of indigenous communities have not received electric. If power supply is an indicator of so-called development, the indigenous community is not developed from that view point.
v) Hakaluki Haor
There is a world’s biggest haor in Bangladesh name Hakaluki. It is unfortunate and a good example too that as a nation we can not take care our resources. A group of greedy people has been systematically destroying the haor for fishing. Bio-diversity in this area is in danger. According to The Somokal (20.04.07), local administration had seized some water pump machines and fishing nets in the haor area. There are government khas land around the haor. Due to lack of care part of the haor areas transformed into khas land. Fish species are wiping out from the haor due to these overwhelming fishing activities. According to sources, 30- 40 beels exist out of 300 beels of Hakaluki haor. The rest of beels are filled and transformed into dry desert.
vi) Coal mines are the mines of exploitation and disaster for ecology
Boro Pukuria Coal mine
According to news sources, land slide happened at 4 hectares land and cracks are found in 27 houses. Residents close to the cola mine are panicked. local people in the area are anxious about bigger disaster in the future. A total 1 thousand 50 hectares land is allocated for this mining project. The poisonous gas out of the mine already has threatened lives of people as well as ecology in the area.
Fulbaria Coal mine
The Asian Energy is making hundreds crores of money at share market in London showing the coal mine in Bangladesh. After the local people’s movement and protest against Asia Energy, government had signed an agreement with people on August 30, 2006. The condition was to expel Asia Energy from Bangladesh and also to receive compensation from them. Unfortunately none of the conditions are fulfilled.
vii) Bio-diversity is in danger due to commercialization
Bangladesh still has a sound environment for different species such as fish, bird, insects, and so on. Commercial exploitation is wiping out some species. Commercial traders are not concern about the conservation and production of the species at all. Some traders have been exporting frog legs and some traders exploiting reptiles for bones and skin. These traders are making profit from the increasing demand of these items. This over exploitation also led imbalances in bio-diversity. These species and insects play important role in agriculture and fisheries. Thus, loss of bio-diversity is a threat for productivity in agriculture and fisheries. Sundarban mangrove forest is very resourceful for habitants including various animals, birds, and plants. The absence of strong institutional policies and actions are unfortunate with regard to the necessity for conservation.
According to a report of The Somokal, 2.5 lac people of Koyra Upazila are suffering from salinity. Plants are dying, paddy is not growing, homestead is being destroyed, and livestock are dying. Deep tub wells are not able to pump out pure drinking water from the ground. Growing Shrimp culture is partly responsible for this wider scale damage of livelihoods, bio-diversity, and ecology in the coastal areas. And local business and political elites are responsible for these shrimp cultures. Article 4.9 (f) mentions that aquaculture at saline water should be restricted by government within a given territory. Thus, the government and people together can stop WB, local elites, and business mafias with regard to this article.
According to India Today, 1997, India has been withdrawing between 60,000 to 80,000 cusecs of water from the Ganges leaving a relatively low flow for Bangladesh. The consequences of this have been severe for Bangladesh, where the salinity front has moved some 280 km upstream from the coast and salinity levels in the surface water have increased from 500 µmho to 29000 µmho at Khulna in April, exceeding the safe limit by several times. The groundwater salinity has also increased from 200 µmho to about 3000 µmho in the region during the Farakka period and there is some evidence that the Sunderbans, one of the world’s largest mangrove forest, is suffering due to increased salinity in the estuarine rivers flowing through it. (Chadwick, Policy Review Paper)
viiI) Aggression of multi national companies for agricultural productivity
The country needs more agricultural productivity to feed its increased population. There is little scope to extend arable areas for cultivation. Thus, the challenge is to have increased production from limited land. Multiple cropping and irrigation technique could be adapted in this connection. Still it this leads to over exploitation of soil. Organization and institutional support mechanism is not state of the art to keep maintaining traditional sustainable agricultural method. Multinational corporations are very much active to sell their products such as chemical fertilizers and GMOs with a false promise for higher production. Farmers are perplexed about how to produce more crops within limited land. They believe prescribed commercial approaches for higher agricultural produces.
Multinational companies are selling chemical fertilizers and pesticides in the rural market of Bangladesh. These chemicals pollute both ground and surface water. Farmers do not practice traditional organic techniques for cropping. Multinational corporations have washed brains of farmers to promote their product and to make profit. Excessive usage of chemical has also degraded bio-diversity and ecological balance. The articles 4.7 (e) of the National Water Policy, 1999, has urged to control chemical usage as well as control the pollution out of the chemical usage. Having a policy paper is worthless unless change happens on the ground through enacting laws to practice it.
C.Treaties and policies
Bangladesh has signed, ratified, accepted and acceded to CITES, World Heritage Convention, Ramsar Convention, CBD, Climate Change Convention and Convention to Combat Desertification. Thus it adheres and commit to the conservation of biodiversity and the environment.
Bangladesh signed the Biodiversity Convention at Rio on 5 June 1992 and ratified on 3 May 1994. Now, various departments are responsible for conservation of bio-diversity. The government has a plan to prepare separate policy for bio-diversity. However, in the mean time, Bangladesh has prepared National Conservation Strategy (NCS) and the National Environment Management Action Plan (NEMAP).
REcommendations
1) Land should be reformed on the basis of proper distributive justice. Khas lands need to be distributed among landless poor. Access to land should enshrined by policies.
2) Access to water bodies such as beel, haors, and baors should be guaranteed by the rural poor. Right to safe drinking water has to be ensured for the citizens. Utilization of rain water could be developed to stop overwhelming demand on ground water.
3) Conservation of forest is an immediate need by stopping deforestation. Government has to activate the existing laws or to enact special laws for forest conservation. Plantation of hazardous tress for forestation is a fool’s effort. Programs have to be undertaken to plant eco-friendly tress forestation.
4) Government should necessary steps with regard to National Fisheries Policy (1998) importance of conserving fish breeding grounds and habitats, especially in relation to water management infrastructure such as flood control, irrigation and drainage projects.
5) Government should strictly prohibit overwhelming shrimp culture and to reduce WB influence over shrimp production.
6) Government along with people’s participation should revisit policies regarding energy resources such as oil, gas, and coal and stop intervention of foreign companies in this regard. Government should also collect compensation money from foreign companies and compensate habitants of the project areas.
7) Government should take immediate steps for the conservation of ecology and bio-diversity. Environmental Conservation Act of February 1995 along with other policies that are concern about ecology. Government should identify the local and foreign actors who violate rights and livelihood of the marginal people. In addition, government needs to ensure enabling atmosphere for marginal people to access natural resources
End Notes
[i] for detail see the report, “Needs for land and agrarian reform”, prepared by ARBAN
[ii] ibid.
[iii] Rahman M., 2001
[iv] ARBAN
[v] for detail see CHARM project report 1, 2006.
[vi] ARBAN
[vii] BCAS 2002
[viii] BBS 2000
Tuesday, March 18, 2008
Mobile Phone & Telecenter: A comparative case study of Bangladesh & Uganda
By Rubayat Ahsan
March, 2008
-------------------------------------------------
Abstract:
A range of information and communication technology based development projects have been undertaken over the past several decades. However, these so-called ict4d projects have had variable success in reaching the extreme poor, the illiterate and the underprivileged. The aim of this paper is to examine the utility of ict4d project efficacy. Particular consideration is given to the village phone program in Bangladesh and the Nakaseke multipurpose community telecenter in Uganda.
The findings show that the village phone program, which focuses primarily on the economic empowerment of project beneficiaries, and the Nakaseke Telecenter, which prioritizes expanding service provision, both fail to take into consideration the extreme poor and disadvantaged; a remarkable weakness in conventional ict4d programming. In addition, it indicates that project duty bearers in conventional ict4d projects are not directly accountable and participation is not particularly people centered. Rather, both projects are managed by development agencies for beneficiaries who are not actively involved in project design, a further shortcoming from the standpoint of the rights-based approach (RBA).
Ict4d is for the marginal or for the well off?
In the realm of development programming, information and communication technology is generally perceived to be a useful tool for empowering the marginalized. At the same time, however, projects employing information and communication technology for development (ict4d) purposes have been criticised for failing to reach the truly marginalized.
A common phenomenon in developing countries is the digital divide. It is most pronounced between urban and rural areas. Rural communities are often deprived of the benefits of ICT applications, widening the gap between the privileged and the underprivileged. If rural areas have access to ICTs, local rights may be protected and local capacity may be improved. They may have enormous potential to raise the capacity of people by the usage of ICT appliances and applications. Once they learn to communicate with people, stakeholders, NGOs, agencies and government, it may enable them to know their rights and to improve their quality of life. ICTs have been rapidly changed contemporary society. A majority of the world’s poor live in rural areas and do not have access to ICT. The growing inequality has already divided the world between have and have not. ICT can be a tool to reach and empower rural communities.
Village Phone Program (VPP) in Bangladesh:
Village phone program is increasingly popular among the ict4d projects. Grameen’s VPP project in the least developed country Bangladesh has drawn attention of development practicioners. Grameen has developed VPP as an exemplary model by providing micro finance along with mobile phones. Besides national and international recognition and appreciation, the VPP model has been replicated in other countries. As VPP is apparently a ‘success story’ example of ict4d, therefore, it is used in this research as a case study.
In 1995 Grameen Bank came to know that the lack of information is a constraint for the poor in rural Bangladesh and because of this, the poor are trapped in a vicious cycle of poverty. Grameen Telecom (GTC), a not-for-profit company, was created to develop village phone program. GTC has a 35% share of Grameen Phone Ltd. The objectives of GTC is to provide easy access to telephone services, to initiate new income earning opportunities especially for the GB borrowers, and spread the information revolution to the rural areas. The village phone program was launched in March 1997. GB members are selected on the basis of their good performance with the bank and provided with loans for a mobile phone. Technical installation and support are given by GTC. GB collects monthly installments, VP bills, and other dues from the mobile phone owners. Village phone operators work as community or public phone operators.
Grameen Phone is a join venture among four companies. Norway’s telecommunication company Telenor AS has a 51% share of GP. Professor Yunus was looking for a company that would support providing phone services for the poor in rural areas. Telenor AS showed interest in fulfilling Yunus’s desire to reach rural areas with mobile phone technology. Grameen Telecom holds a 35% share, and was specially created within Grameen family as not for profit organization to run VPP and expand opportunities for poor villages. Marubeni, a Japanese trading company, having investments in many other developing countries, holds 9.5% share. Iqbal Quadir’s[i] New York based Gonophone Development Corporation has 4.5% share.
Nakaseke Community Telecenter in Uganda:
Nakaseke MCT is an internationally recognized ict4d project where multi stakeholders from local, national and international level are involved. This MCT project is well known example of Community telecentres. A range of ICT services are provided from the center. MCT has a different approach for serving community with ICT services than VPP’s aim of economic empowerment.
Nakaseke is the well known MCT in the field of ict4d, which was opened on March
1999 as three years pilot project. It is a join venture between national and international partners[ii]. National Agricultural Research Organization (NARO), Kawanda Agricultural Research Institute, and local NGOs are also part of strategic alliances.
The program is a major component of the U.N. special initiative for Africa, “Harnessing Information Technology for Development” (HITD). Nakaseke is one of the five telecenter projects initiated in Benin, Mali, Mozambique, and Tanzania supported by ITU, IDRC, and UNESCO. The objective of the project is to test and evaluate application of new technology for the development of rural areas, providing information and communication at rural community for catalyzing their development process and finally improvement of quality of life. The MCT is located at rural area Nakaseke under Luweero district located at 50 km north of Kampala in central Uganda. Crop and livestock farming are major economic activities in the smallholdings.
Nakaseke MCT is part of Acacia initiative undertaken by IDRC. The mission of Acacia project is to empower sub-Saharan communities to enable them with ICT. Acacia supports Canada’s contribution to the African Information Society Initiatives (AICS) was endorsed by African governments as an Action to build Africa’s ICT Infrastructure[iii]. Between 1997 and 2000 Acacia Project covers four countries in Sub- Saharan Africa. These countries are Mozambique, Sebegal, South Africa, and Uganda. Few other projects had been implemented in Mali, Benin, and Tanzania. Thus Acacia is engaged with 35 telecenters in seven countries of Sub-Saharan Africa. Among these projects five have been jointly funded by UNESCO and ITU.
Telephones, facsimile machines, computers with Internet access are available at the Nakaseke center. Besides these services there is also a library having digital and print materials. The center has a stock CD ROMS. The center provides ICT training and computer applications. The center conducts out reach programs to reach the people who illiterate, poor and are not accustomed to the usage of MCT. In addition, the center works on compilation of indigenous knowledge recording and dissemination. The center has eight computers, two printers, a scanner, a photocopy machine, VCR, Television, video camera, and projector. Nakaseke MCT basically relies on conventional electricity supplied by Uganda Electricity Board. The center uses deep cycle batteries and inverter as an alternate power supply during power failure.[iv] International donors fund 60% while government provides 40% of the budget. The community contributes fund for the operating cost of the center including accommodation, salaries and allowance of staffs. Community has taken initiative to collect tax which is called “school tax”. Under this school tax scheme every student has to pay US $0.59 per year. ( Mayanja, 2001: 111)
From beneficiaries’ perspective:
From VPP and MCT project analysis, it is found that existing ict4d projects are still discriminatory. These projects are more benefiting to well off classes in the rural community than marginalized group. None of the project has given special attention to vulnerable groups in the community in a significant way. VPP has given special attention to women in rural communities, which is good a initiative but not convincing. VP women are already well off members of the bank. GB has given interest free loan to beggars. GB’s beggar project is a new experiment, which needs further study for evaluation. These projects do not offer “true participation” of their beneficiaries. Beardon et al. (2004) stresses that participation should enable people to identify their information needs and ability to analyze information. Heeks (1999, p.1) says, “Participation is seen to fail in such projects because it ignores context; because it is itself ignored; because it ignores reality; and because it ignores other factors.” The analysis of VPP and MCT project found a lack of conventional practices of ict4d where project beneficiaries are passive receivers rather active designers of their own project. VPP has gone for raising the income level of their beneficiaries; on the other hand MCT project provides ICT services and skills for the community. The empowerment formula of existing ict4d needs further scrutiny from a capability enhancement perspective for claiming rights. In VPP and MCT project the beneficiaries are objects of the project. They do not have much influence over project implementers of the organizations.
From duty bearers or agencies’ perspective:
Ict4d projects needs to change their conventional approach. These are typical ict4d projects that follow conventional development approach, which may not permit a trade-off between development and rights. Practitioners of ict4d need to be educated or aware about human rights for linking “development” with “rights”. Therefore, linkages to rights could result in seeing projects from a rights perspective. Corruption, abuse of power, political unrest, social and life insecurity altogether have created weak governance in Bangladesh and in Uganda, which problematizes development practices. In the perspective of poverty reduction and basic needs VPP aims to lift their beneficiaries above the poverty line. On the other hand, MCT project does not show noteworthy evidence of poverty reduction. However, both ict4d projects lack attention to the extreme poor of the communities.
Conclusion
It is assumed that ICT can empower marginalized. Ict4d projects aim for the development of people. The analysis of the VPP and MCT projects in this thesis has found some areas where the conventional approach of ict4d needs further attention to incorporate them into a RBA. Beardon (2004, p.3) says development means a good quality of life for all people and the goal should be on people’s wellbeing rather economic growth. Beardon says, “I don’t know how to achieve it, but I know that some fundamental changes are necessary.” A “fundamental change” is really necessary to shift the existing practice of ict4d. Incorporation of RBA into ict4d could bring some changes which may benefit the marginalized as shown in this research.
VPP is a good example of ict4d, which has empowered the beneficiaries economically, especially women, and given access to information to community people on a wider scale. Nakaseke MCT is typical of CTCs in that it lacks meaningful participation of the community. Special management positions have to be created on the basis of RBA aspects, for instance non-discrimination, empowerment, good governance, linkages to rights, poverty reduction & basic needs, accountability, and participation. Creating these positions depends on organization’s projects and programs and needs for special focus on any particular or set of aspects.
Recommendation
VPP and CTCs programs have to be redesigned by bringing people back to the center of the project rather than passive receiver of ICT services. CTCs have to make sure that illiterate and poor people in the community have the minimum functionality with computers and internet. Special trainers are needed for this group of people.
Bibliography
Ahsan, R 2006. ‘Incorporation of rights based approach in development programming: an examination of
problems and prospects of ict4d projects’. MA Thesis. Mahidol University.
Mayanja, M 2001, ‘The Nakaseke multipurpose community telecentre in Uganda’, in Telecentres: case studies and key issues, eds C. Latchem & D. Walker, The Commonwealth of Learning.
Beardon, H, Munyampeta, F, Rout, S, & Williams G M, 2004, ICT for development: empowerment or exploitation?, viewed 15 February 2005,
Heeks, R 1999, The Tyranny of Participation in Information Systems: Learning from Development Projects, Institute for Development Policy and Management
Ahsan, MB ed, 1996, Grameen bank and Muhammad Yunus, Mowla Brothers, Dhaka.
Annual Report 2002, Grameen Foundation USA, viewed 30 May 2004,.
Bayes, A 2000, ‘The Phone and the Future: An Evaluation of Village Pay Phones in Bangladesh’, Global Dialogue: The Role of the Village in the 21st Century, Expo 2000 Hannover, Germany.
Bayes, A, Von Braun J, Akhter R1999, Village pay phones and poverty reduction, Program for Research on Poverty Alleviation, Grameen Trust, Dhaka
Bhatnagar, Prof. Subhash, Dewan, A, Torres, MM, Kanungo, P, Grameen Telecom: The village phone program, viewed 30 May 2004,
Campbell, Christopher J 1995, Community Technology Centers: Exploring a Tool for Rural Community Development, The Center for Rural Massachusetts, University of Massachusetts, Amherst
Cohen, Nevin 2001, What Works: Grameen Telecom’s Village Phones, viewed 01 June 2004,.
Dahms, M 1999, Telecentre Evaluation: A Global Perspective, viewed 10 December 2004,
Etta, FE & Parvyn-Wamahiu, S (eds) 2002, The experience with community telecentres, viewed 15 November 2004,.
GrameenPhone Revisited: Investors Reaching Out to the Poor 2004, OECD, viewed 17 February 2005,.
MCT pilot projects 2002, ITU , viewed 24 December 2004, <>
Multipurpose community telecentres (MCTs) in Uganda 2002, ITU, viewed 7 January 2005,
Nassolo, A 2001, Bridging the rural digital divide in Uganda: case study of Nakaseke MCT pilot project, viewed 25 December 2004,.
Report on telecentres in Africa (n.d.), viewed 25 November 2004,.
Rice, MF 2003, ‘Information and Communication Technologies and the Global Digital Divide’, Comparative Technology Transfer and Society, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 72-88.
UNDP 2004, ICT and Human Development: Towards Building a Composite Index for Asia, ELSEVIER, New Delhi.
End Notes:
[i] In 1994 Iqbal Quadir returned to Bangladesh from USA with the idea to invest in the telecommunication sector.
He had a mindset that ICT could empower people and open up some windows for the prosperity of poor villagers.
He discussed the idea with Professor Yunus. He realized that GB’s institutional capacity can properly
utilize the idea to benefit poor.
[ii] International partners are International Development Research Center’s (IDRC) Acacia initiative,
International Telecommunication Union (ITU), UNESCO, Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO),
and British Council. And national partners are Uganda Telecom Ltd. (UTL), Uganda Public Library
Board, and Uganda National Commission for UNESCO.UNESCO got support from Danish aid agency
DANIDA.
[iii] For detail see, http://web.idrc.ca/en/ev-5895-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html, site visited on January 29, 2005
[iv] For detail see Report on Telecentres in Africa, http://www.communitysa.org.za/africaict/buganda.htm,
site visited on Febrayry 03, 2005.
March, 2008
-------------------------------------------------
Abstract:
A range of information and communication technology based development projects have been undertaken over the past several decades. However, these so-called ict4d projects have had variable success in reaching the extreme poor, the illiterate and the underprivileged. The aim of this paper is to examine the utility of ict4d project efficacy. Particular consideration is given to the village phone program in Bangladesh and the Nakaseke multipurpose community telecenter in Uganda.
The findings show that the village phone program, which focuses primarily on the economic empowerment of project beneficiaries, and the Nakaseke Telecenter, which prioritizes expanding service provision, both fail to take into consideration the extreme poor and disadvantaged; a remarkable weakness in conventional ict4d programming. In addition, it indicates that project duty bearers in conventional ict4d projects are not directly accountable and participation is not particularly people centered. Rather, both projects are managed by development agencies for beneficiaries who are not actively involved in project design, a further shortcoming from the standpoint of the rights-based approach (RBA).
Ict4d is for the marginal or for the well off?
In the realm of development programming, information and communication technology is generally perceived to be a useful tool for empowering the marginalized. At the same time, however, projects employing information and communication technology for development (ict4d) purposes have been criticised for failing to reach the truly marginalized.
A common phenomenon in developing countries is the digital divide. It is most pronounced between urban and rural areas. Rural communities are often deprived of the benefits of ICT applications, widening the gap between the privileged and the underprivileged. If rural areas have access to ICTs, local rights may be protected and local capacity may be improved. They may have enormous potential to raise the capacity of people by the usage of ICT appliances and applications. Once they learn to communicate with people, stakeholders, NGOs, agencies and government, it may enable them to know their rights and to improve their quality of life. ICTs have been rapidly changed contemporary society. A majority of the world’s poor live in rural areas and do not have access to ICT. The growing inequality has already divided the world between have and have not. ICT can be a tool to reach and empower rural communities.
Village Phone Program (VPP) in Bangladesh:
Village phone program is increasingly popular among the ict4d projects. Grameen’s VPP project in the least developed country Bangladesh has drawn attention of development practicioners. Grameen has developed VPP as an exemplary model by providing micro finance along with mobile phones. Besides national and international recognition and appreciation, the VPP model has been replicated in other countries. As VPP is apparently a ‘success story’ example of ict4d, therefore, it is used in this research as a case study.
In 1995 Grameen Bank came to know that the lack of information is a constraint for the poor in rural Bangladesh and because of this, the poor are trapped in a vicious cycle of poverty. Grameen Telecom (GTC), a not-for-profit company, was created to develop village phone program. GTC has a 35% share of Grameen Phone Ltd. The objectives of GTC is to provide easy access to telephone services, to initiate new income earning opportunities especially for the GB borrowers, and spread the information revolution to the rural areas. The village phone program was launched in March 1997. GB members are selected on the basis of their good performance with the bank and provided with loans for a mobile phone. Technical installation and support are given by GTC. GB collects monthly installments, VP bills, and other dues from the mobile phone owners. Village phone operators work as community or public phone operators.
Grameen Phone is a join venture among four companies. Norway’s telecommunication company Telenor AS has a 51% share of GP. Professor Yunus was looking for a company that would support providing phone services for the poor in rural areas. Telenor AS showed interest in fulfilling Yunus’s desire to reach rural areas with mobile phone technology. Grameen Telecom holds a 35% share, and was specially created within Grameen family as not for profit organization to run VPP and expand opportunities for poor villages. Marubeni, a Japanese trading company, having investments in many other developing countries, holds 9.5% share. Iqbal Quadir’s[i] New York based Gonophone Development Corporation has 4.5% share.
Nakaseke Community Telecenter in Uganda:
Nakaseke MCT is an internationally recognized ict4d project where multi stakeholders from local, national and international level are involved. This MCT project is well known example of Community telecentres. A range of ICT services are provided from the center. MCT has a different approach for serving community with ICT services than VPP’s aim of economic empowerment.
Nakaseke is the well known MCT in the field of ict4d, which was opened on March
1999 as three years pilot project. It is a join venture between national and international partners[ii]. National Agricultural Research Organization (NARO), Kawanda Agricultural Research Institute, and local NGOs are also part of strategic alliances.
The program is a major component of the U.N. special initiative for Africa, “Harnessing Information Technology for Development” (HITD). Nakaseke is one of the five telecenter projects initiated in Benin, Mali, Mozambique, and Tanzania supported by ITU, IDRC, and UNESCO. The objective of the project is to test and evaluate application of new technology for the development of rural areas, providing information and communication at rural community for catalyzing their development process and finally improvement of quality of life. The MCT is located at rural area Nakaseke under Luweero district located at 50 km north of Kampala in central Uganda. Crop and livestock farming are major economic activities in the smallholdings.
Nakaseke MCT is part of Acacia initiative undertaken by IDRC. The mission of Acacia project is to empower sub-Saharan communities to enable them with ICT. Acacia supports Canada’s contribution to the African Information Society Initiatives (AICS) was endorsed by African governments as an Action to build Africa’s ICT Infrastructure[iii]. Between 1997 and 2000 Acacia Project covers four countries in Sub- Saharan Africa. These countries are Mozambique, Sebegal, South Africa, and Uganda. Few other projects had been implemented in Mali, Benin, and Tanzania. Thus Acacia is engaged with 35 telecenters in seven countries of Sub-Saharan Africa. Among these projects five have been jointly funded by UNESCO and ITU.
Telephones, facsimile machines, computers with Internet access are available at the Nakaseke center. Besides these services there is also a library having digital and print materials. The center has a stock CD ROMS. The center provides ICT training and computer applications. The center conducts out reach programs to reach the people who illiterate, poor and are not accustomed to the usage of MCT. In addition, the center works on compilation of indigenous knowledge recording and dissemination. The center has eight computers, two printers, a scanner, a photocopy machine, VCR, Television, video camera, and projector. Nakaseke MCT basically relies on conventional electricity supplied by Uganda Electricity Board. The center uses deep cycle batteries and inverter as an alternate power supply during power failure.[iv] International donors fund 60% while government provides 40% of the budget. The community contributes fund for the operating cost of the center including accommodation, salaries and allowance of staffs. Community has taken initiative to collect tax which is called “school tax”. Under this school tax scheme every student has to pay US $0.59 per year. ( Mayanja, 2001: 111)
From beneficiaries’ perspective:
From VPP and MCT project analysis, it is found that existing ict4d projects are still discriminatory. These projects are more benefiting to well off classes in the rural community than marginalized group. None of the project has given special attention to vulnerable groups in the community in a significant way. VPP has given special attention to women in rural communities, which is good a initiative but not convincing. VP women are already well off members of the bank. GB has given interest free loan to beggars. GB’s beggar project is a new experiment, which needs further study for evaluation. These projects do not offer “true participation” of their beneficiaries. Beardon et al. (2004) stresses that participation should enable people to identify their information needs and ability to analyze information. Heeks (1999, p.1) says, “Participation is seen to fail in such projects because it ignores context; because it is itself ignored; because it ignores reality; and because it ignores other factors.” The analysis of VPP and MCT project found a lack of conventional practices of ict4d where project beneficiaries are passive receivers rather active designers of their own project. VPP has gone for raising the income level of their beneficiaries; on the other hand MCT project provides ICT services and skills for the community. The empowerment formula of existing ict4d needs further scrutiny from a capability enhancement perspective for claiming rights. In VPP and MCT project the beneficiaries are objects of the project. They do not have much influence over project implementers of the organizations.
From duty bearers or agencies’ perspective:
Ict4d projects needs to change their conventional approach. These are typical ict4d projects that follow conventional development approach, which may not permit a trade-off between development and rights. Practitioners of ict4d need to be educated or aware about human rights for linking “development” with “rights”. Therefore, linkages to rights could result in seeing projects from a rights perspective. Corruption, abuse of power, political unrest, social and life insecurity altogether have created weak governance in Bangladesh and in Uganda, which problematizes development practices. In the perspective of poverty reduction and basic needs VPP aims to lift their beneficiaries above the poverty line. On the other hand, MCT project does not show noteworthy evidence of poverty reduction. However, both ict4d projects lack attention to the extreme poor of the communities.
Conclusion
It is assumed that ICT can empower marginalized. Ict4d projects aim for the development of people. The analysis of the VPP and MCT projects in this thesis has found some areas where the conventional approach of ict4d needs further attention to incorporate them into a RBA. Beardon (2004, p.3) says development means a good quality of life for all people and the goal should be on people’s wellbeing rather economic growth. Beardon says, “I don’t know how to achieve it, but I know that some fundamental changes are necessary.” A “fundamental change” is really necessary to shift the existing practice of ict4d. Incorporation of RBA into ict4d could bring some changes which may benefit the marginalized as shown in this research.
VPP is a good example of ict4d, which has empowered the beneficiaries economically, especially women, and given access to information to community people on a wider scale. Nakaseke MCT is typical of CTCs in that it lacks meaningful participation of the community. Special management positions have to be created on the basis of RBA aspects, for instance non-discrimination, empowerment, good governance, linkages to rights, poverty reduction & basic needs, accountability, and participation. Creating these positions depends on organization’s projects and programs and needs for special focus on any particular or set of aspects.
Recommendation
VPP and CTCs programs have to be redesigned by bringing people back to the center of the project rather than passive receiver of ICT services. CTCs have to make sure that illiterate and poor people in the community have the minimum functionality with computers and internet. Special trainers are needed for this group of people.
Bibliography
Ahsan, R 2006. ‘Incorporation of rights based approach in development programming: an examination of
problems and prospects of ict4d projects’. MA Thesis. Mahidol University.
Mayanja, M 2001, ‘The Nakaseke multipurpose community telecentre in Uganda’, in Telecentres: case studies and key issues, eds C. Latchem & D. Walker, The Commonwealth of Learning.
Beardon, H, Munyampeta, F, Rout, S, & Williams G M, 2004, ICT for development: empowerment or exploitation?, viewed 15 February 2005,
Heeks, R 1999, The Tyranny of Participation in Information Systems: Learning from Development Projects, Institute for Development Policy and Management
Ahsan, MB ed, 1996, Grameen bank and Muhammad Yunus, Mowla Brothers, Dhaka.
Annual Report 2002, Grameen Foundation USA, viewed 30 May 2004,
Bayes, A 2000, ‘The Phone and the Future: An Evaluation of Village Pay Phones in Bangladesh’, Global Dialogue: The Role of the Village in the 21st Century, Expo 2000 Hannover, Germany.
Bayes, A, Von Braun J, Akhter R1999, Village pay phones and poverty reduction, Program for Research on Poverty Alleviation, Grameen Trust, Dhaka
Bhatnagar, Prof. Subhash, Dewan, A, Torres, MM, Kanungo, P, Grameen Telecom: The village phone program, viewed 30 May 2004,
Campbell, Christopher J 1995, Community Technology Centers: Exploring a Tool for Rural Community Development, The Center for Rural Massachusetts, University of Massachusetts, Amherst
Cohen, Nevin 2001, What Works: Grameen Telecom’s Village Phones, viewed 01 June 2004,
Dahms, M 1999, Telecentre Evaluation: A Global Perspective, viewed 10 December 2004,
Etta, FE & Parvyn-Wamahiu, S (eds) 2002, The experience with community telecentres, viewed 15 November 2004,
GrameenPhone Revisited: Investors Reaching Out to the Poor 2004, OECD, viewed 17 February 2005,
MCT pilot projects 2002, ITU , viewed 24 December 2004, <>
Multipurpose community telecentres (MCTs) in Uganda 2002, ITU, viewed 7 January 2005,
Nassolo, A 2001, Bridging the rural digital divide in Uganda: case study of Nakaseke MCT pilot project, viewed 25 December 2004,
Report on telecentres in Africa (n.d.), viewed 25 November 2004,
Rice, MF 2003, ‘Information and Communication Technologies and the Global Digital Divide’, Comparative Technology Transfer and Society, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 72-88.
UNDP 2004, ICT and Human Development: Towards Building a Composite Index for Asia, ELSEVIER, New Delhi.
End Notes:
[i] In 1994 Iqbal Quadir returned to Bangladesh from USA with the idea to invest in the telecommunication sector.
He had a mindset that ICT could empower people and open up some windows for the prosperity of poor villagers.
He discussed the idea with Professor Yunus. He realized that GB’s institutional capacity can properly
utilize the idea to benefit poor.
[ii] International partners are International Development Research Center’s (IDRC) Acacia initiative,
International Telecommunication Union (ITU), UNESCO, Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO),
and British Council. And national partners are Uganda Telecom Ltd. (UTL), Uganda Public Library
Board, and Uganda National Commission for UNESCO.UNESCO got support from Danish aid agency
DANIDA.
[iii] For detail see, http://web.idrc.ca/en/ev-5895-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html, site visited on January 29, 2005
[iv] For detail see Report on Telecentres in Africa, http://www.communitysa.org.za/africaict/buganda.htm,
site visited on Febrayry 03, 2005.
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